Internal Validity (IV): The extent to which we can say that the effect is actually caused by the manipulation. The key point is to take good control of manipulation implementation & Extraneous Variable. Field experiment is inevitably bad for IV but good for External Validity (EV)–the extent to which the effect found can be replicated or generalized to the real world settings.
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TOLMAN’S RATS, LATENT LEARNING Theory 指出，平常用眼睛看（僅只有 input），突然有一天需要做的時候，就能做出 output。這種 latent learning，可以用來解釋為何 extensive reading 對口說和寫作會有顯著的強化效果。
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